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Fascinating…
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<div class="">For those interested in Polaroid and digital photography, Peter Buse provides a nice synopsis in Chapter 3 of his book “The Camera Does the Rest: How Polaroid Changed Photography”. Preoccupied with the introduction of integral film and the SX-70
in the 1970s, it seems Polaroid did not get series about electronic imaging until the late 1970s/early 1980s. (You start reading about digital imaging (“filminess cameras” or “”electronic cameras”) in Polaroid’s press around the mid 1980s.). Most of the
records are at Baker Library at Harvard.</div>
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<div class="">As for the cost of film versus digital images, you might find it interesting to include the cost of Polaroid “instant film” as that eliminated two of those drugstore trips and provided more immediate gratification. (When the SX-70 camera was
released in 1972 for a retail price of $180; a pack of film with 10 images was $6.90.). Most serious historians of Polaroid consider the overnight Fotomat followed by the 1-hour mini-lab technology that were the main “killers” of instant photography for consumer
use. (The “nod to the pod” obsession that became gospel during the Polaroid v. Kodak lawsuit also created a stultifying atmosphere within the company that worked against the development of digital technologies…or any other technologies is another big factor.)</div>
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<div class="">Probably more than you wanted to know about Polaroid but the great stories below got me thinking!</div>
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<div class="">Debbie Douglas</div>
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<div class="">On Jul 10, 2020, at 1:33 AM, <a href="mailto:thomas.haigh@gmail.com" class="">
thomas.haigh@gmail.com</a> wrote:</div>
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It's not quite the same thing, but in the Revised History of Modern Computing (with Paul Ceruzzi, coming soon from MIT Press) we've tried to integrate the history of digital imaging into the history of computing. It seems necessary, not least because digital
cameras are computers in disguise (and because the images were stored, edited, and transmitted on more recognizable kinds of computer). The topic comes back in the later discussion of smartphones and device convergence in the final chapter but as a sneak preview
here is the subsection “Digital Cameras” from Chapter 10: The Computer Becomes a Universal Media Device. Would be happy to hear of any errors while there is still time to fix them….<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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Tom<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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<i class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Calibri Light", sans-serif;" class="">Digital Cameras<o:p class=""></o:p></span></i></p>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Television worked by dividing a picture into a grid of dots. Even the term “pixel” (for picture element) which we now associate with computer equipment originated
in the television equipment industry. Back in 1945, working on the “First Draft” EDVAC design, John von Neumann was fascinated by the idea potential of the iconoscope, an electronic tube used in early television cameras, as a storage device.<o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">In television, however, intensity of each dot was transmitted as an analog value. Turning pixels into numbers was the job of the frame grabber. This captured a
single frame from a video input and turned it into a bitmap image. Frame grabbers were used for video production work and were built into specialist video manipulation hardware to create special effects. A related piece of hardware, the gen lock, synchronized
computer displays with video image so that computer generate titles and graphics could be added to videos. These devices were expensive, purchased mostly by video production companies to liven up music videos, advertisements, and wedding footage with titles
and special effects.<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><sup class=""><sup class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">[1]</span></sup></sup></a><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<a name="_Hlk12952481" class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Today digital video sensors are everywhere. The crucial development was the charged coupled device (CCD), which combined a semiconductor
with a light sensitive layer. Fairchild Semiconductor began to sell a 100x100 light sensor in 1974. That provided the basis for an experimental digital camera at Kodak. When light was focused onto the sensor matrix numbers could be read off the chip. Space
missions had a particular need for tiny and reliable digital imaging technologies, creating pictures that could be beamed back to Earth. Techniques had been developed back in the 1960s, original for spy satellites, to expose film and then scan it and transmit
images digitally back to earth. Being able to take high quality digital still images directly was much simpler and faster. By 1978 a KH-11 spy satellite was using a CCD with, reportedly, an 800x800 resolution.</span></a><a href="x-msg://19/#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class=""><sup class=""><sup class=""><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[2]</span></sup></sup></span></a><span class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class=""><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>The
Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1986, used a similar size mirror but gave much higher resolution CCD sensors a very public showcase.</span></span><a href="x-msg://19/#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class=""><sup class=""><sup class=""><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[3]</span></sup></sup></span></a><span class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class=""><o:p class=""></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Back on earth, the first big market was for cheaper “one dimensional” sensors able to scan a single line. Flatbed scanners and fax machines moved the scanner across
against the page to capture the entire image gradually. (A similar digital scanning approach had been pioneered with the photo diode cameras of the Viking Mars landers. It worked well, albeit slowly, as neither the platform nor the landscape was moving). Commercializing
digital cameras took longer, because many more sensor elements were needed to capture an entire image at once. The technology made a brief consumer appearance in 1987, in the PXL-2000 “PixelVision” camera produced by toy company Fisher Price. It recorded highly
pixelated video onto standard audio cassettes, later becoming a favorite of hipster artists.<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><sup class=""><sup class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">[4]</span></sup></sup></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>CCDs
were also used in some of the analog camcorders of the 1980s, bulky devices that combined a video cassette recorder and a television camera into a single box.<o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">By the mid-1990s higher resolution sensors and the chips and memories to deal with the large files they produced were becoming affordable. They made their way
into two related kinds of product. Digital video cameras could store one hour of crisp, high resolution footage on special tapes as 13 gigabytes of computer data. Computers fitted with a Firewire connection (also used by early iPods) could extract digital
video, edit it, and write the results back to the tape without any loss of quality.<o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">The other kind of digital camera was patterned after traditional cameras. Camera manufacturers competed on “megapixels” – how many millions of pixels the sensor
element handled. At the end of the 1990s most had just one or two megapixels, capturing images that looked good on screen but would appear jagged when printed out.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Because they were optimized for still images, which took less space than video, most still cameras used chip-based flash memory cards rather than tape (though
some early models used floppy disks or CDs). Flash retained data when power was turned off but could be quickly and selectively overwritten. It was introduced by Toshiba in 1987, finding early applications in computers to store configuration settings for computers
and to hold BIOS code in an easily updatable form. The cards used in early digital cameras could store only a few megabytes but, as with other memory chips, their capacities rose into the gigabytes as transistors shrank. Because it was very compact and power
efficient, high capacity flash memory capacities was a crucial enabling technology for the creation of new portable devices. Flash memories able to store hundreds of gigabytes ultimately replaced hard disk storage in most PCs, though this took longer than
expected because magnetic disk capacities increased even faster than chip densities during the 1990s and early-2000s.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">The digital cameras of the late-1990s were bulky, had small screens, and would deplete their batteries and fill their memory cards after taking just a few dozen
images. Compared to the models available even a few years later they were terrible, but the relevant comparison was with consumer film cameras. Conventional film cartridges held only 24 or 36 pictures. Seeing those pictures cost at least ten dollars and usually
took three trips to a drugstore, to buy the film, to drop it off for processing, and to collect the prints. Pocket sized camera forced users to squint through a plastic window, giving a vague idea of what might appear in a photograph. Larger, more expensive
single lens reflex cameras took better pictures and showed whether an image was in focus. Little wonder that most people took out their camera only for vacation trips and special occasions.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Even the most primitive digital cameras enabled new photographic practices Digital cameras caught on fastest for business that needed to shoot images and use them
immediately, for real estate sales, corporate newsletters, or identity cards. Their direct competition was Polaroid instant cameras, which had high running costs and mostly took small pictures. As prices dropped and picture quality improved, consumers began
to buy digital cameras, and to take far more pictures than ever before. Vacations were now captured with hundreds of pictures, not just one or two films. Teenagers could mimic the practices of fashion photographers by taking a few dozen shots of a friend and
using the best one. Since the early 2000s, daily life has been visually recorded on a scale unmatched in earlier history, a phenomenon known as “ubiquitous photography.”<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><sup class=""><sup class=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">[5]</span></sup></sup></a><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Early memory cards held only a few megabytes, needing aggressive compression to hold even a dozen images. That was provided by a new image format, the JPEG (named
for the Joint Photographic Experts Group), a cousin to the MP3 format that used a fractal compression algorithm to achieve similarly impressive reductions in file size. In 1991, when libjpeg, a widely used open source code module for JPEG compression, was
released, it took a powerful PC to create these files. By the late 1990s the computer power could be put into a camera, though early models would be tied up for several seconds processing each image. Once the memory card was full, users moved the files onto
a computer. Digital photography was another of the practices made possible by the arrival of PCs with voluminous hard drives as a standard feature of middle-class households. People who wanted to print out their photographs could still go to the drug store,
or purchase an affordable little color printer, but photographs were viewed more and more on screens. They were shared with friends and family by email, or by copying them onto a zip disk or burning onto a CD rather than by handing over an envelope full of
duplicate prints.<o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 32px; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class="">Screens got bigger, images sharper, battery life longer, camera bodies smaller, and sensors better. By the early 2000s sensors with a dozen megapixels were common,
enough that the image quality would be limited primarily by the quality of the camera’s optics. Cameras began to use a different sensor technology, called CMOS after the chip technology it is based on. CMOS imaging was prototyped at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
a centerpiece of the US space probe program. The new technology produced camera sensors cheaper, smaller, and lower powered than those based on CCDs. By 2006 a camera costing a few hundred dollars would fit in a trouser pocket, take hundreds of images without
changing a battery or a memory card, and offer better image quality than any compact film-based consumer camera. Improvements under low light conditions, taking photographs at night or indoors without a flash, were particularly dramatic.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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-----Original Message-----<br class="">
From: Members <<a href="mailto:members-bounces@lists.sigcis.org" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class="">members-bounces@lists.sigcis.org</a>> On Behalf Of Brian Randell<br class="">
Sent: Thursday, July 9, 2020 5:22 AM<br class="">
To: Sigcis <<a href="mailto:members@sigcis.org" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class="">members@sigcis.org</a>><br class="">
Subject: [SIGCIS-Members] How the Digital Camera Transformed Our Concept of History</div>
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Hi:<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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"How the Digital Camera Transformed Our Concept of History" is the title of a paper by Allison Marsh that has just been published by IEEE Spectrum.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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It starts:<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> For an inventor, the main challenge might be technical, but sometimes it’s timing that determines success. Steven Sasson had the technical talent but developed his prototype for an all-digital camera a couple of decades too early.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> A CCD from Fairchild was used in Kodak’s first digital camera<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> prototype It was 1974, and Sasson, a young electrical engineer at Eastman Kodak Co., in Rochester, N.Y., was looking for a use for Fairchild Semiconductor’s new type 201 charge-coupled device. His boss suggested that he try using the 100-by-100-pixel CCD
to digitize an image. So Sasson built a digital camera to capture the photo, store it, and then play it back on another device.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> Sasson’s camera was a kluge of components. He salvaged the lens and exposure mechanism from a Kodak XL55 movie camera to serve as his camera’s optical piece. The CCD would capture the image, which would then be run through a Motorola analog-to-digital converter,
stored temporarily in a DRAM array of a dozen 4,096-bit chips, and then transferred to audio tape running on a portable Memodyne data cassette recorder. The camera weighed 3.6 kilograms, ran on 16 AA batteries, and was about the size of a toaster.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> After working on his camera on and off for a year, Sasson decided on 12 December 1975 that he was ready to take his first picture. Lab technician Joy Marshall agreed to pose. The photo took about 23 seconds to record onto the audio tape. But when Sasson played
it back on the lab computer, the image was a mess—although the camera could render shades that were clearly dark or light, anything in between appeared as static. So Marshall’s hair looked okay, but her face was missing. She took one look and said, “Needs
work.”<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> Sasson continued to improve the camera, eventually capturing impressive images of different people and objects around the lab. He and his supervisor, Garreth Lloyd, received U.S. Patent No. 4,131,919 for an electronic still camera in 1978, but the project
never went beyond the prototype stage. Sasson estimated that image resolution wouldn’t be competitive with chemical photography until sometime between 1990 and 1995, and that was enough for Kodak to mothball the project.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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The article ends:<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> Digital cameras also changed how historians conduct their research For<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> professional historians, the advent of digital photography has had other important implications. Lately, there’s been a lot of discussion about how digital cameras in general, and smartphones in particular, have changed the practice of historical research.
At the 2020 annual meeting of the American Historical Association, for instance, Ian Milligan, an associate professor at the University of Waterloo, in Canada, gave a talk in which he revealed that 96 percent of historians have no formal training in digital
photography and yet the vast majority use digital photographs extensively in their work. About 40 percent said they took more than 2,000 digital photographs of archival material in their latest project. W. Patrick McCray of the University of California, Santa
Barbara, told a writer with The Atlantic that he’d accumulated 77 gigabytes of digitized documents and imagery for his latest book project [an aspect of which he recently wrote about for Spectrum].<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> So let’s recap: In the last 45 years, Sasson took his first digital picture, digital cameras were brought into the mainstream and then embedded into another pivotal technology—the cellphone and then the smartphone—and people began taking photos with abandon,
for any and every reason. And in the last 25 years, historians went from thinking that looking at a photograph within the past year was a significant marker of engagement with the past to themselves compiling gigabytes of archival images in pursuit of their
research.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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> So are those 1.4 trillion digital photographs that we’ll collectively take this year a part of history? I think it helps to consider how they fit into the overall historical narrative. A century ago, nobody, not even a science fiction writer, predicted that
someone would take a photo of a parking lot to remember where they’d left their car. A century from now, who knows if people will still be doing the same thing. In that sense, even the most mundane digital photograph can serve as both a personal memory and
a piece of the historical record.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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Full story at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/how-the-digital-camera-transformed-our-concept-of-history" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;" class="">https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/silicon-revolution/how-the-digital-camera-transformed-our-concept-of-history</span></a><o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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Cheers<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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Brian Randell<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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School of Computing, Newcastle University, 1 Science Square, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 5TG<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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EMAIL =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="mailto:Brian.Randell@ncl.ac.uk" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;" class="">Brian.Randell@ncl.ac.uk</span></a>
PHONE = +44 191 208 7923<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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URL =<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.ncl.ac.uk/computing/people/profile/brianrandell.html" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;" class="">http://www.ncl.ac.uk/computing/people/profile/brianrandell.html</span></a><o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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_______________________________________________<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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This email is relayed from members at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://sigcis.org/" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class="">sigcis.org</a>, the email discussion list of SHOT SIGCIS. Opinions expressed
here are those of the member posting and are not reviewed, edited, or endorsed by SIGCIS. The list archives are at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://lists.sigcis.org/pipermail/members-sigcis.org/" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;" class="">http://lists.sigcis.org/pipermail/members-sigcis.org/</span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and
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<div style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; text-decoration: none;" class="">
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<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[1]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Commodore’s
Amiga was well suited to video production, thanks to high resolution video modes that functioned well with inexpensive genlock and frame grabber hardware. Maher,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i class="">The Future Was Here: The Commodore Amiga</i>,
ch. 5.<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;" class=""><o:p class=""></o:p></span></div>
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<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">
<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[2]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>On
the history of spy satellites, see William E Burrows,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i class="">Deep Black: Space Espionage and National Security</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(New York: Random House, 1987).<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">
<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[3]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>R
W Smith and J N Tatarewicz, "Replacing a Technology: The Large Space Telescope and CCDs,"<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i class="">Proceedings of the IEEE<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></i>73, no. 7 (July 1985):1221-1235.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
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<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">
<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[4]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Chris
O'Falt, "Pixelvision: How a Failed '80s Fisher-Price Toy Became One of Auteurs' Favorite '90s Tools", IndieWire, 2018,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="https://www.indiewire.com/2018/08/pixelvision-pxl-2000-fisher-price-toy-experimental-film-camera-lincoln-center-series-1201991348/" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class="">https://www.indiewire.com/2018/08/pixelvision-pxl-2000-fisher-price-toy-experimental-film-camera-lincoln-center-series-1201991348/</a>.<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
</div>
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<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt; font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">
<a href="x-msg://19/#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title="" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline;" class=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference" style="vertical-align: super;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;" class="">[5]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>Martin
Hand,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i class="">Ubiquitous Photography</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>(Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2012).<o:p class=""></o:p></div>
</div>
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the email discussion list of SHOT SIGCIS. Opinions expressed here are those of the member posting and are not reviewed, edited, or endorsed by SIGCIS. The list archives are at<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://lists.sigcis.org/pipermail/members-sigcis.org/" style="color: rgb(149, 79, 114); text-decoration: underline; font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; orphans: auto; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: auto; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px;" class="">http://lists.sigcis.org/pipermail/members-sigcis.org/</a><span style="caret-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; font-variant-caps: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: start; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; text-decoration: none; float: none; display: inline !important;" class=""><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and
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<div style="word-wrap: break-word;" class=""><font class="x_Apple-style-span"><font class="x_Apple-style-span"><font class="x_Apple-style-span" size="1"><b class="">Deborah G. Douglas, PhD </b></font><font class="x_Apple-style-span" face="Helvetica-Light" size="1">•</font></font><font class="x_Apple-style-span" face="Helvetica-Light" size="1"> Director
of Collections and Cu</font></font><font class="x_Apple-style-span" face="Helvetica-Light" size="1">rator of Science and Technology, MIT Museum; Research Associate, Program in Science, Technology, and Society • Room N51-209 • 265 Massachusetts Avenue • Cambridge,
MA 02139-4307 • <a href="mailto:ddouglas@mit.edu" class="">ddouglas@mit.edu</a> • 617-253-1766 telephone • 617-253-8994 facsimile • <a href="http://mitmuseum.mit.edu" class="">http://mitmuseum.mit.edu</a> • she/her/hers</font></div>
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